Analysis of Prelims Paper I

The GS Paper for the Prelims 2016 threw up some real surprises. It broke away from the earlier conventions. The most important features of the paper are as follows:

• Prime focus on current affairs, both national and international
• Very few questions from the subjects like Geography and Polity
• Very few questions that are core to any subject. 
• Shift from concept oriented questions to fact oriented questions  

The following is the detailed break-up of the questions asked from various subjects. As I told before, since many questions are general, it is difficult to include them within particular subjects. 

History

A total of sixteen questions came from History. Out of these, six questions were from modern history, five from ancient/medieval history and five from Art & Culture. While the questions from modern history were simple, those from other areas were relatively tough.

Geography

Just five questions were asked totally from this subject and those too were not really core to the topic. Many of those had a connection with the current aspects like those on river-linking and shale gas sources.

Polity 

It consisted of again five questions. All of those were from the functional aspects of the Constitution and none from the philosophical parts like the Preamble, Fundamental Rights etc. Questions were asked about Parliament, Executive and the Local Bodies and these were conventional in type.

Economics

Ten questions were asked from this subject. But only two were to the core i.e. questions on capital budget and budget deficit. The rest were related to the current aspects of national and international importance. This includes the technological and administrative reforms taken up in sectors like banking (Questions on Payment banks, Core banking solutions, MCLR etc.)

Science & Technology

It consisted of eleven questions. Except a question on virus, all were related to current aspects. It spanned the various important technological fields like space-technology, bio-technology, military technology, Information Technology and Electronics. Greater focus was given to scientific advancements in India or to those which India is related to. Significantly my earlier post of S&T contained some of these information.

Environment

This subject was one of the prime contributors to the Prelims with a total of thirteen questions. But none of them were related to the science related aspects like ecology or biodiversity. All were based on national and international programmes/agreements. Significantly my earlier post on Environment contained most of these information.

Current Affairs

As told before, this formed the major part of the paper. A total of forty questions were asked from Current Affairs. Of these twenty-two were related to national affairs while eighteen were related to international affairs. Apart from these, many questions from subjects like Economics, S&T and Environment were related to Current Affairs.

Summing up, the pattern of the Prelims Paper I is as follows:

Subject	Number of Questions
History	16
Geography	5
Polity	5
Economics	10
Environment	13
Science & Technology	11
Current Affairs	40
Total	100

Prelims also the Mains way?

The changing nature of Prelims implies that it is also going the Mains way. General Studies for Mains (especially GS II and GS III) heavily rely upon Current Affairs. The areas asked for the Prelims - 2016 are similar to those generally asked for the Mains, except that they were referring to some specific facts. Let us now see the two most important question types in Prelims Paper - I

I. Government schemes, institutions and Acts 

A major portion of the paper has been dedicated for Government schemes, institutions or Acts They are as follows:

1. 'Stand Up India' Scheme

2. 'Mission Indradhanush'

3. Food Safety and Standards Act

4. Green India Mission

5. Gram Nyayalayas Act

6. SWAYAM

7. Pradhan Mantri MUDRA Yojana

8. Atal Pension Yojana

9. Bureau of Energy Efficiency

11. 'DigiLocker' facility

12. 'Payment Banks'

13. Ujjwal Discom Awaas Yojana (UDAY)

14. Rashtriya Garima Abhiyaan

15. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana

16. National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA)

17. Sovereign Gold Bond Scheme and Gold Monetization Scheme 

II. International agreements/organisations/reports

International agreements/organisations/reports seem to be the next big part. Most of these are either economy or environment related. 

1. Food and Agricultural Organisation 

2. Doing Business Report

3. Trans Pacific Partnership

4. India-Africa Summit

5. The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)

6. UN REDD+ scheme

7. Greenhouse Gas Protocol

8. Agenda 21

9. Base Erosion and Profit Shifting
10. New Development Bank

11. Gulf Cooperation Council

12. Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)

13. International Solar Alliance

14. European Stability Mechanism

15. UNFCCC

16. Sustainable Development Goals

17. Intended Nationally Determined Contributions

18. International Financial Corporation

19. WTO

20. UN Convention to Combat Desertification

21. IMF

22. Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW)

23. International Monetary and Financial Committee (IMFC)

A candidate who is well acquainted with the day-to-day affairs would find the questions easy, even though he/she is not well aware of the basic concepts. But, it doesn't mean that you can ignore the concepts and study only current affairs for the next time. We can never take UPSC for granted. The important message is that the subject matter for Prelims and Mains is almost becoming similar and the only difference is in the way you approach the two. While we need to study the vital details for Prelims, there should be a holistic approach for the Mains. This implies that our preparation strategy should be focussing the Mains from here onwards.

Cut-off for Prelims

Prelims 2016 is assumed to be a bit tougher compared to Prelims 2015. Hence there is a high chance for the cut-off getting lowered. A 100-105 range is most probable. But, as we know this exam is synonymous with surprises and uncertainties and hence there can be wide variations. Let us hope for the best, but prepare for the worst too..

Global Statistics and Reports

Let us study some important reports or surveys brought by important institutions across the world in this post. They serve as basic standards for individual countries to work upon and re-orient their policies.

World Development Report
It is an annual report published since 1978 by the World Bank. Each WDR provides in-depth analysis of a specific aspect of economic development. The 2016 report titled Digital Dividends assembles the best available evidence on the Internet's potential impact in the world. The digital economy has been deepening in countries like India, but the greater automation is leading to inequalities in labour market.

Global Economic Prospects
The World Bank's twice-yearly Global Economic Prospects examines growth trends for the global economy and how they affect developing countries.The World Bank has downgraded its global forecast 2.4% from 2.9% due to sluggish growth in advanced economies, weak global trade

World Economic Situation and Prospects
It is a joint product of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN/DESA), the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) and the five United Nations regional commissions under UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

Doing Business Report
It is an annual report published by World Bank since 2004 where the countries are ranked according to the ease of doing business. It takes into account 10 parameters like starting a business, registering property, getting credit, getting electricity etc. India has improved its rank to 130 from 134 last year.The improvement in two indicators, ‘starting a business’ and ‘getting electricity,’ pushed India up the ladder

World Economic Outlook
It is a survey conducted and published biannually by IMF. It portrays the world economy in the near and medium context, with projections for up to four years into the future. According to the recent update the global growth rate is projected to be 3.2% for 2016 and 3.5% in 2017. According to it, India, growing at 7.5% will be the fastest growing major economy in 2016-17 .

World Investment Report
It is published annually by UNCTAD since 1991. Each year´s Report covers the latest trends in foreign direct investment around the World. According to the 2016 report, US tops in FDI inflows while India is placed at the 10th position. The report describes about the role of MNCs and the issues related to their ownership or origin with respect to taxation.

Global Competitiveness Report
It is an annual report published by the World Economic Forum, a Geneva based non-profit foundation. The countries across the globe have been ranked based on the Global Competitiveness Index since 2004. According to the 2015-16 Report, India has jumped up 16 positions to rank 55th in the world. Switzerland has retained its position as the most competitive economy in the world.

Global Risk Report
It is an annual study published by the World Economic Forum ahead of the Forum’s Annual Meeting in Davos, Switzerland. It identifies the global risks that could play a critical role in the upcoming year. According to it, climate change poses the greatest risk in 2016. On the economic front, deflation is the risk of highest concern for doing business in India

Human Capital Report
The World Economic Forum’s Human Capital Report ranks 130 countries (Human Capital Index) on how well they are developing and deploying their human capital, focusing on education, skills and employment. India is placed in the 105th position according to the latest report since it could optimise only 57% of the human capital endowment. Finland has bagged the top spot.

Asian Economic Outlook Report
It is an economic publication by Asian Development Bank that provides a comprehensive analysis of macroeconomic issues in developing Asia, including growth projections by country and region. It has downgraded its economic projection for Asia, but considers South Asia marking good growth lead by India.

Global Innovation Index
It is an annual ranking of countries by their capacity for, and success in, innovation. It is published by Cornell University, INSEAD, and the World Intellectual Property Organization. It was started in 2007. Switzerland has topped the chart in the 2015 ranking while India is at the 81st position out of a total of 141 countries. But India has retained its top spot in South Asia.

World Trade Report
It is an annual publication from the WTO. It aims to deepen understanding about trends in trade, trade policy issues and the multilateral trading system. The theme of this year’s report is “Trade in Natural Resources: Challenges in Global Governance”

Human Development Report
It is an annual report published by the UNDP. It was developed in 1990 by the two eminent welfare economists, Mahbub Ul Haq and Amartya Sen. It measures development based on three important parameters - health, knowledge and standard of living of the people. The Scandinavian nation Norway has topped the chart while India languished at the 130th position out of a total of 188 nations. The huge inequalities in educational and health outcomes and gender differences have pulled back India.

World Environment Outlook
It is a series of reports on the environment issued periodically by the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP). The upcoming GEO-6, expecting to be launched in mid-2017, will build upon regional assessment processes and create a comprehensive picture of the environmental factors contributing to human well-being.

Global Hunger Index
It is a multi-dimensional statistical tool developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute to asses the situation of hunger in global nations. It was first published in 2006. The focus of the 2015 Index has been on armed conflict and chronic hunger. India has been ranked 55 in the list. According to it while one-sixth of the total population in India remains undernourished, one-fourth of the children are malnourished.

Global Peace Index
It is compiled by the Institute of Economics and Peace in consultation with global peace experts since year 2007. While Iceland is the most peaceful nation, Indian figures in the 141st position out of a total of 162 countries. In South Asia, it lags behind Bhutan, Nepal and Sri Lanka.

Corruption Perception Index
It is an annual survey by corruption watchdog Transparency International since 1995. According to the latest report (CPI 2015), Denmark is the "cleanest" nation, while India figures at rank 76 out of a total of 168 countries. The CPI generally defines corruption as "the misuse of public power for private benefit."

World Press Freedom Index
It is an annual ranking of countries across the globe prepared by the body Reporters sans Borders. While Finland has topped the list for the sixth consecutive year, India is ranked at the 133rd position among 180 countries across the world.

Environment Performance Index
It was developed by Yale University and Colombia University and is in practice since 2002. The EPI measures national and global protection of ecosystems and human health from environmental harm.Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries have topped the list while India is placed at the 155th position out of 178 countries in the 2014 EPI. 

International and regional organisations

Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA)
It consists of the 21 coastal states (including India) bordering the Indian Ocean and 7 Dialogue Partners.The IORA is a regional forum, tripartite in nature, bringing together representatives of Government, Business and Academia, for promoting co-operation and closer interaction among them. It is based on the principles of Open Regionalism for strengthening Economic Cooperation particularly on Trade Facilitation and Investment, Promotion as well as Social Development of the region. It was established in 1997.

Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM)
The Bangladesh-India-China-Myanmar Corridor envisages a network of modern road, railway, port and communication and trade connectivities in a region stretching from Kolkata to Kunming in South China.

Mekong-Ganga Cooperation
It consists of the six countries India, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam to promote cultural, tourism, educational and transport linkages for future trade and investment. It was established in 2000.

Bay of Bengal Initiative of Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
It consists of seven countries - India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Nepal. Formed in 1997, the BIMSTEC was the first Preferential Trade Agreement (PTA) of India involving diverse stake-holders like academia, business-men apart from Government executives.

South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC)
It was formed in 1985. It consists of eight countries in South Asia - India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Maldives and Afghanistan. The South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA) was formed in the 12th SAARC Summit in 2004.

Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN)
It is a geo-political and economic organisation consisting of ten countries in South East Asia. It has the motto of "One Vision, One Identity, One Community". It was formed in 1967. It has been further integrated into ASEAN Plus Three by adding China, Japan and South Korea. The East Asia Summit (EAS) was a further expansion including India, Australia, New Zealand, Russia and US into the ASEAN Plus Three thus comprising of a total of 18 nations. The ASEAN Economic Community generally referred to as "AEC 2015" was established in Kuala Lumpur in 2015.

Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
This includes ASEAN plus 6 observer nations i.e. Australia, New Zealand, India, China, South Korea and Japan. Unlike the East Asia Summit, the U.S is absent in this grouping which promotes free trade in East Asia.

Shanghai Co-operation Organisation
It is a Eurasian political, economic, and military organisation which founded in Shanghai in 2001. There are six members - China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Kyrgystan and Uzbekistan. The 2015 Summit decided to include India and Pakistan as full-time members of the organisation.

BRICS
It is an association of five major emerging economies - Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. The grouping was originally known as "BRIC" before the controversial inclusion of South Africa in 2010. India is going to host the BRICS conference in Goa in 2016.The New Development Bank (NDB), formerly referred to as the BRICS Development Bank, is a multilateral development bank operated by the BRICS states. The bank's primary focus of lending will be infrastructure projects. Apart from this, the BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement (CRA) is a framework for providing protection against global liquidity pressures.

Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)
It is an international financial institution that aims to support the building of infrastructure in the Asia-Pacific region. The bank was proposed as an initiative by the government of China and has 57 Prospective Founding Member (PFM) States including India. It was brought as an alternative to the Japan dominated Asian Development Bank (ADB). The capital of the bank is $100 billion and China is the largest share-holder.

Asia Pacific Economic Co-operation (APEC)
It was founded in 1989 and comprises of 21 nations that borders the Pacific Ocean. The aim is to promote free trade in the Asia-Pacific region. The APEC is dominated by countries like US, Australia and Canada while ASEAN countries dominates the other major group East Asia Summit.

Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP)
It is a trade agreement among 12 countries bordering the Pacific.It was created as part of the initiative of U.S. Apart from U.S the major member-countries are Canada, Mexico, Australia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam and most recently, Japan. Significantly China is not a member of TPP.

Trans-Atlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)
It is a trade and investment partnership between the Atlantic rim countries. It include the U.S and the European Union and accounts for half of the world's GDP and 30% of global trade in goods and services.

European Union (EU)
It is a politico-economic union of 28 member states (Britain is still a member) that are located primarily in Europe. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital within the internal market. Brussels, the capital of Belgium, is considered to be the de facto capital of the EU. A monetary union called Eurozone was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002, and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency. The EU traces its origins from the European Economic Community (EEC) formed by the Inner Six countries (Belgium, France, West Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands) in 1958 as part of the Treaty of Rome. The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship. The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU, the Treaty of Lisbon, came into force in 2009.

Gulf Co-operation Council (GCC)
It is a regional intergovernmental political and economic union consisting of all Arab states of the Persian Gulf, except for Iraq. It was formed in 1981. Its member states are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. All member states are monarchies, including three constitutional monarchies (Qatar, Kuwait, and Bahrain),two absolute monarchies (Saudi Arabia and Oman), and one federal monarchy (the United Arab Emirates, composed of seven member states, each with its own emir). Collectively, GCC countries possess almost half of the world's oil reserves.

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
It is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference in 1960. There are 14 member countries that account for 43 percent of global oil production and 73 percent of the world's "proven" oil reserves, giving OPEC a major influence on global oil prices. Saudi Arabia is the de-facto head of the group. It is head-quartered in Vienna, Austria. Gabon that had terminated its membership has rejoined the organisation in 2016.

Eurasian Economic Union (EEU)
It is an economic union of states located primarily in North Eurasia. It was established in 2015 and consists of members like Russia, Kyrgystan, Kazakhstan, Armenia and Belarus. It is a Russian headed initiative to contain the impact of the European Union.

African Union (AU)
The AU comprises of 54 countries in the African continent. Morocco is the only UN member nation that is not a member of AU. The main aim is the economic integration of Africa. It was formed in 2001, from the earlier Organisation of African Unity (OAU) that was founded in 1963 in Ethiopia with the major aim of ending the colonial and white-minority rule in Angola, Mozambique, South Africa and other nations.

Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS)
It is an intergovernmental organization of low-lying coastal and small island countries established in 1990. The main purpose of the alliance is to consolidate the voices of Small Island Developing States (SIDS) to address global warming. AOSIS has a membership of 44 states.

International UN agencies

These are autonomous organizations working with the United Nations. The United Nations Economic and Social Council acts as the coordinating machinery. The important among them are:

1. World Bank Group
It was formed in 1945 with a mission to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity. It is the largest and most famous development bank in the world and is an observer at the United Nations Development Group. It comprises of the following organisations.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) - It is one among the Brettonwood Twins (the other being IMF). It gives low interest loans to middle-income and credit-worthy low income countries.
International Development Association (IDA) - It gives interest free loans to poor countries
International Finance Corporation (IFC) - It is the source of loan and equity financing for private sector projects in the developing world.
Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA) - It encourages foreign investment in developing countries by offering insurance to private investors against loss caused by non-commercial risks like war, political turmoil etc.
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) - It is the invsetment dispute settlement body.
India is a member to all groups except the ICSID.

2. International Monetary Fund
It was founded in 1945 at Brettonwoods with the IBRD and is head-quartered in Washington DC. The objectives are to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability and provide assistance for BoP problems. It provides short-term loans to member countries. The voting power in the IMF is based on a quota system. Each member has a number of basic votes plus one additional vote for each Special Drawing Right (SDR) of 100,000 of a member country's quota.The Special Drawing Right is the unit of account of the IMF and represents a claim to currency. It is based on a basket of key international currencies - US Dollar, Euro, Japanese Yen and Pound Sterling.

3. World Health Organisation
It is concerned with international public health. It was established in 1948, headquartered in Geneva. Its current priorities include combating communicable diseases, in particular HIV/AIDS, Ebola, malaria and tuberculosis

4. UN Economic Scientific and Cultural Organisation
It was formed in 1945 and is head-quartered in Paris. UNESCO pursues its objectives through five major programs: education, natural sciences, social/human sciences, culture and communication/information. The concept of World Heritage Sites was popularised by it.

5. International Labour Organisation
It is the tripartite U.N. agency, since 1919 that brings together governments, employers and workers representatives of 187 member States , to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men. It is head-quartered at Geneva.

6. Food & Agricultural Organisation
It is an agency that leads international efforts to defeat hunger. FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all. It was created in 1945 and is head-quartered in Rome.

7. World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)
It was created in 1967 and is head-quartered in Geneva. Its mission is to encourage creative activity, to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world.

8. International Telecom Union (ITU)
It is the international agency for information and communication technologies – ICTs. They allocate global radio spectrum and satellite orbits, develop the technical standards that ensure networks and technologies seamlessly interconnect, and strive to improve access to ICTs to underserved communities. It was formed in 1865 and is head-quartered in Geneva.

Important UN Programmes and Funds

1. UN Development Programme (UNDP)
The status of UNDP is that of an executive board within the United Nations General Assembly. It was formed in 1965 and is head-quartered in New York city. UNDP advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge, experience and resources to help people build a better life. It publishes the Human Development Report annually. It is also behind the system of Millennium Development Goals and Post-2015 Development Agenda.

2. UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
It is also known as the UN Refugee Agency. It is mandated to protect and support refugees at the request of a government or the UN itself and assists in their voluntary repatriation, local integration or resettlement to a third country. It was formed in 1950 and is head-quartered in Geneva.

3. UN Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF)
It is a United Nations program headquartered in New York City that provides long-term humanitarian and developmental assistance to children and mothers in developing countries. It was formed in 1946

4. UN Population Fund (UNFPA)
It was formerly known as the UN Fund for Population Activities. It is the lead UN agency for delivering a world where every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe and every young person's potential is fulfilled. It was formed in 1969 and is head-quartered in New York city.

5. UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
UNCTAD was formed in 1964 and is head-quartered in Geneva. Its mandate is to maximize the trade, investment and development opportunities of developing countries and assist them in their efforts to integrate into the world economy on an equitable basis. The UNCTAD was developed as an alternative to West dominated trade organisations like the IMF, World Bank and WTO. It is associated with the idea of New International Economic Order (NIEO). Its efforts have been significant in realising the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP) that allows duty free entry of goods from the developing world to the developed nations.

6. UN Environment Programme (UNEP)
It was formed during the Stockholm Conference in 1972. It has been working as the nodal agency for environment related issues. It is head-quartered in Nairobi, Kenya

7. UN-Women
United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women, also known as UN Women, is a United Nations entity working for the empowerment of women. It was formed in 2010 and is head-quartered in New York city.

Agreements/treaties related to arms control

Multilateral Export Control Regimes
It is an international body that control the export of weapons or dual use goods to other countries
1. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG)
NSG is a group of nuclear supplier countries that seek to prevent nuclear proliferation by controlling the export of materials, equipment and technology that can be used to manufacture nuclear weapons. It was formed in the aftermath of India's nuclear test in 1974. It currently has 48 members. India is not a member to NSG.
2. Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR)
It is an informal and voluntary partnership among 35 countries to prevent the proliferation of missile and unmanned aerial vehicle technology capable of carrying above 500 kg payload for more than 300 km. India became a member of MTCR in 2016.
3. Wassenaar Arrangement
It is a multilateral export control regime (MECR) on Export Controls for Conventional Arms and Dual-Use Goods and Technologies. There are 41 participating states including many former COMECON (Warsaw Pact) countries. The agreement promoted transparency and greater responsibility in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use goods and technologies, thus preventing destabilizing accumulations.It was formed in 1996.
4. Australia Group 
It was formed in 1985 for control of chemical and biological technology that could be weaponized. Chemical weapons were used by Iraq in 1984.

Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, 1968
It is an international treaty whose objective is to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and weapons technology, to promote cooperation in the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and to further the goal of achieving nuclear disarmament and general and complete disarmament. It divides the countries into Nuclear Weapon States (US, UK, China, France and Russia) and Nuclear Non Weapon States. The latter should allow inspection by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to ensure that the nuclear sources are not used for military purposes. India, Pakistan, Israel and South Sudan have not signed the treaty while North Korea has withdrawn from it.

Nuclear Weapon Free Zones (NWFZ)
It was formed as an alternative to NPT, under UN Office for Disarmament Affairs (UNODA). Under this system, group of nations agree among themselves from refraining the use, development or deployment of nuclear weapons in a given area. There are five such zones across the world. Another term Nuclear Free Zone are areas that have banned both nuclear power and nuclear weapons.

Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 1996
It aims to prohibit all tests and explosions, but not all 44 countries that have nuclear reactors (Annex II nations) has ratified this treaty. This includes China and United States. On the other hand India, Pakistan and North Korea have not signed it. This treaty is yet to enter into force.

Environment related Organisations and Events

Environment has become a subject of international debate since the 1970s. A number of organisations and events have come up raising the importance of environment related issues. This has emerged as an important area in the CSE. Let us now study about the international bodies and events related to environment.

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971
This happened in Ramsar, Iran and is hence also known as Ramsar Convention. It identified important wetlands across the globe which were otherwise called as Ramsar Sites. The Convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 26 Ramsar Sites.

UN Conference on the Human Environment, 1972
It is popularly known as the Stockholm Conference.It was the first step in putting environmental concerns in global agenda. The conference resulted in the famous 'Stockholm Declaration' containing twenty six principles towards preservation and enhancement of human environment. It also lead to the setting up of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to serve as the coordinating agency in environment related efforts across the globe.

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972
The Convention that is under UNESCO, draws up a list of 'heritage sites' which are cultural, natural or mixed areas of 'outstanding universal value' and therefore need to be protected for all humanity. It publishes the World Heritage List and a List of World Heritage in Danger (also known as Endangered Sites). It also maintains a World Heritage Fund for the conservation of such sites. The convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 35 Heritage sites - 27 cultural, 7 natural and one mixed site. Recently Nalanda University and Capitol Complex in Chandigarh were added as Cultural Heritage Sites while Khangchendzonga Peak in Sikkim was declared as a mixed site.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1973
The aim of the convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival. The Parties to the Convention need to authorise all import, export and re-export of species covered under the Convention through a licensing system. Three are three Appendices according to the degree of protection - Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction, Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened but whose trade need to be controlled. Appendix III contains species that are protected at least in one country that has asked other CITES Parties to cooperate. The Convention entered to force in 1975.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), 1979
This is otherwise known as Bonn Convention and it entered into force in 1983. It is a global effort aiming at conserving terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It consists of two Appendices - Appendix I deals with endangered migratory species like Siberian Crane and Hawksbill Turtle. Appendix II deals with not so endangered species but require international cooperative action for their protection.

Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources,1980
It happened as a part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The goal is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. In 1989, CCAMLR set up the Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) to further monitor the effects of fishing and harvesting of species in the area.

Law of the Sea Convention, 1982
It seeks to protect and preserve marine environment. The countries party to the convention should not over-exploit the resources in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer, 1985
The Parties under this convention agreed to undertake appropriate measures to prevent modification of ozone layer. It entered into force in 1988.

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
It set legally binding goals for reducing Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). It aims to reduce and eventually eliminate man-made ODSs like Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) and Hydro-Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (HCFC). It entered into force in 1989.

UN World Commission on Environment and Development (UNWCED), 1987
It is also known as the Brundtland Commission. It unveiled the concept of Sustainable Development as "development that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the capabilities of the future generations to meet their needs". The report titled "Our Common Future" was published in 1987. It introduced concepts like 'Polluter Pays Principle', 'Inter-generational Equity', 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities' etc.

Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, 1989
The Convention addresses the risk to human health and environment caused by hazardous and other wastes and their trans-boundary movement. It entered into force in 1992. The related Liability Protocol which put binding obligations on the members was adopted in 1999.

UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1991
This is popularly called as Earth Summit and this happened in Rio-De-Janeiro, Brazil. The Conference had three main objectives - climate change, sustainable development and bio-diversity conservation. The UNFCCC, CBD and Agenda 21 have emerged from the Earth Summit:

1. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The objective of the convention is combating the climate change. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an expert-level body that presents reports to the UNFCCC. The IPCC was established in 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP. The important summits (otherwise known as Conference of Parties or CoP) under UNFCCC are:
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 - It put legally binding obligations on developed nations (Annex nations) to reduce carbon emissions by 5.2% during the period 2008-2012, the base year being 1990. The protocol entered into force in 2005.
Bali Action Plan, 2007 - On the adaptation and mitigation actions for combating climate change. It also lead to the creation of Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +). It aims to incentivise the developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks. The most important projects related to the REDD+ approach are the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank and the UN-REDD Programme
Copenhagen Accord, 2009 - It created the Global Climate Fund (GCF), as a mechanism to transfer money from developed to developing world for adaptation and mitigation efforts, amounting to a total of $100 billion to be raised by 2020.
Durban Platform, 2011 - To keep the Kyoto protocol alive till 2020 and to negotiate a successor agreement.
Paris summit, 2015 - The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) introduced formally as a new commitment mechanism among the member nations. It envisages a bottom-up approach where the individual nations are free to declare their commitments rather than abide by the orders from above. The Summit has decided to restrict global warming to below 1.5 degree centigrade from the pre-industrial levels.

2. Agenda 21
This is a document containing the non-binding voluntary UN Action Plan regarding sustainable development which can be applied at local, national and global levels. A UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was formed as part of this.

3. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The convention had three objectives - i) Conservation of biological diversity, ii) Sustainable use of its components and iii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
The Nagoya Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol are attachments to it.
Nagoya Protocol, 2010
It is specifically on the Access and Benefit sharing aspect of the CBD. It aims to combat bio-piracy by ensuring legal certainty and transparency. There is a special stress to protect and preserve Traditional Knowledge(TK) regarding genetic resources. It entered into force in 2014. In a related event, five targets related to biodiversity to be achieved in the ten year period from 2011 to 2020 were announced. These were called as Aichi Targets.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000
The protocol seeks to protect local biodiversity from the potential risk posed by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) resulting from Biotechnology. It allows the countries to ban import of a GMOs if there are not enough scientific evidence to prove otherwise. It is in accordance with the precautionary approach, contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration during the Earth Summit. The protocol entered into force in 2003.

UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), 1994
The convention 'endorses' a bottom-up approach to international environmental co-operation. The Parties to the Convention are to make prevention of desertification a priority in national policies.
It entered into force in 1996.

Rotterdam Convention, 1998
It is on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. It entered into force in 2004

UN Millennium Declaration
It happened in the UN head-quarters at New York in 2000. The main component of the Declaration was the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). These were a set of eight broad goals regarding socio-economic and environmental issues across the globe that are to be achieved within the year 2015. (http://csaide.blogspot.in/2015/08/millenium-development-goals.html)

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001
It entered into force in 2004 and aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP). POPs are chemical substances that persist in the environment and bio-accumulate through the food-web. Initially twelve pesticides and chemicals were identified to be worst offenders and they were called the 'Dirty Dozen'. Currently there are 24 POPs which have been divided into three categories - A (Elimination), B (Restriction) and C (Unintentional production).

World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002
It is also known as Earth Summit 2002 or "Rio +10". It discussed about the key means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from business and non-governmental organizations.

UN Conference on Sustainable development, 2012
It is also known as Earth Summit 2012 or "Rio+20".  A document titled "The Future We Want" was published. It unveiled the language of Sustainable Development Goals that have replaced the Millennium Development Goals from year 2016. The Conference exhorted for improved well-being and social equity while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcity.

Other important organisations

Conservation International - It is an non-profit environmental organization whose goal is to protect nature as a source of food, fresh water, livelihoods and a stable climate. The CI was behind the concept of Biodiversity Hotspots. They identified 34 hotspots across the globe and and took initiative to protect those.

Birdlife International - It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity. It has identified regions known as Endemic Bird Areas where the distributions of restricted-range species of birds (up to 50,000 sq. km.) overlap.

World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - It is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of humanity's footprint on the environment. It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund. It is currently the largest conservation organisation. Much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: oceans and coasts, forests, and freshwater ecosystems. The WWF has initiated the 'Earth Hour' event to highlight environmental issues and energy security.

Internation Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) - It was formed in 1948 and is a global partnership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organisations. The IUCN has been phenomenal in bringing out the Red Data List that classifies plants and animals into categories based on the severity of threat they face. It has also classified world's Protected Areas into six categories.

Global Environment Facility  - It is an independently operating financial organization and serves as financial mechanism for Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Stockholm Convention on Persistant Organic Pollutants.

Current Affairs for CSE - Part VII

I have written about Environment related issues in this post.

1. National Air Quality Index
The NAQI was created by the MoEF&CC with the help of IIT Kanpur. It acts as a ‘One Number- One Colour-One Description’ standard to judge the Air Quality for Common Man. There are six AQI categories, namely Good, Satisfactory, Moderately polluted, Poor, Very Poor, and Severe.  The proposed AQI will consider eight pollutants (PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3, NH3, and Pb) for which short-term (up to 24-hourly averaging period) National Ambient Air Quality Standards are prescribed.
  
2. National Adaptation Fund
Government has established the National Adaptation Fund on Climate Change (NAFCC) to combat climate change. The NABARD would be the National Implementing Entity (NIE) responsible for implementation of projects under NAFCC. The Adaptation Fund is to assist States that are particularly vulnerable, based on the needs and priorities identified under the State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) and the relevant Missions under National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC).

3. Compensatory Afforestation Fund Bill
The Bill establishes the National Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of India, and a State Compensatory Afforestation Fund under the Public Account of each state. These Funds will receive payments for: (i) compensatory afforestation, (ii) net present value of forest (NPV), and (iii) other project specific payments.  The National Fund will receive 10% of these funds, and the State Funds will receive the remaining 90%. The Bill also establishes the National and State Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authorities (CAMPA) to manage the National and State Funds.

4. Solid waste management rules
Solid Waste Management Rules were notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. The new rules are now applicable beyond municipal areas and will extend to urban agglomerations, census towns, notified industrial townships etc. Clear responsibilities have been assigned to various class of consumers. Solid waste is to be segregated into dry waste, wet waste and hazardous waste. The waste generator will have to pay ‘User Fee’ to the waste collector and a ‘Spot Fine’ for littering and non-segregation, the quantum of which will be decided by the local bodies.

5. Heat wave
This summer witnessed extreme heat waves across India. The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given the following criteria for Heat Waves :

• Heat Wave need not be considered till maximum temperature of a station reaches atleast 40 degree centigrade for Plains and at least 30 degree centigrade for Hilly regions
• When normal maximum temperature of a station is less than or equal to 40 degree centigrade, Heat Wave Departure from normal is 5 degree centigrade to 6 degree centigrade. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 7 degree centigrade or more
• When normal maximum temperature of a station is more than 40 degree centigrade Heat Wave Departure from normal is 4 degree centigrade to 5 degree centigrade. Severe Heat Wave Departure from normal is 6 degree centigrade or more.
• When actual maximum temperature remains 45 degree centigrade or more irrespective of normal maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.

6. IndARC
It is India’s first multi-sensor moored observatory in the Kongsfjorden fjord of the Arctic, roughly half way between Norway and the North Pole. This moored observatory is jointly designed and developed by National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) and National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR). These sensors are programmed to collect real-time data on seawater temperature, salinity, current and other vital parameters of the fjord. The Kongsfjorden is an established reference site for the Arctic marine studies. The Kongsfjorden has been considered as a natural laboratory for studying the Arctic climate variability, as it receives varying climatic signals from the Arcitc/Atlantic in the course of an annual seasonal cycle.

7. India’s Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDC)
As per the agreement in the Paris Climate Summit of the UNFCCC, India has committed its INDCs. INDC include reduction in the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 per cent by 2030 from 2005 level and to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through additional forest and tree cover by 2030.  India has also decided to anchor a global solar alliance, INSPA (International Agency for Solar Policy & Application), of all countries located in between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn. India’s share of non-fossil fuel in the total installed capacity is projected to change from 30% in 2015 to about 40 % by 2030. There is a long-term goal to increase forest cover through a planned afforestation drive which includes number of programmes and initiatives like Green India Mission, green highways policy, financial incentive for forests, plantation along rivers, REDD-Plus & Other Policies and Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority   

8. Forest Rights Act and PESA
These two important legislation have protected the livelihood of the tribes and other forest dwellers in India. While the Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1994 established tribal dominated elected local bodies in Schedule V Areas in India, the Forest Right Act, 2006 ensured the vital role of the Gram Sabha in granting permission for diversion of area for non-forest activities. But the weakly worded acts have resulted in they being exploited by vested interests. The Free and Prior Informed Consent (FPIC) is core to it.

9. Declaring animals as 'vermin' - Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 
Since 2015, the Union Environment Ministry has acceded to requests from Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Bihar to declare wild boar, rhesus macaque, and nilgai as vermin within specified territories of these States, and outside forests and protected areas. This was because they were proven nuisance in the human habitations bordering forest areas. Such a measure means that those who kill these animals here will, for a year after these notifications come into effect, not be subject to the jail terms and fines that hunting these animals typically invite. Wildlife laws divide species into ‘schedules’ ranked from I to VI. Schedule I members are the best protected, in theory, with severe punishments meted out to those who hunt them. Wild boars, nilgai and rhesus monkeys are Schedule II and III members — also protected, but can be hunted under specific conditions. 

10. India Biodiversity Awards – 2016
The International Day for Biological Diversity 2016 was celebrated all over the country by different States and various organisations on 22nd May 2016. The India Biodiversity Awards were distributed during the occasion. Launched in 2012, by the Ministry of Environment Forests and Climate Change in partnership with the United Nations Development Progamme, the India Biodiversity Awards recognise excellence in biodiversity governance across the country. The winners are as follows:

• The Hargilla army project to conserve the Greater Adjutant Bird that is an endagered species found only in India and Cambodia. 
• Hornbill Nest Adoption Programme in Pakke Tiger Reserve, Arunachal Pradesh
• Vechur cattle ex-situ breeding programme
• Conservation of the living root bridges in Mawkyrnot, Meghalaya by the self help group.
• Participatory Learning and Action Network - An ecological intervention to conserve the coastal ecosystem in Tamil Nadu

11. Sustainable Development Goals
At the United Nations Sustainable Development Summit in 2015, world leaders adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which includes a set of 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty, fight inequality and injustice, and tackle climate change by 2030. Each goal has specific targets to be achieved over the next 15 years. The language of the SDGs were outlined in the UN Conference on Sustainable Development, 2012 otherwise known as Rio +20 Summit.

12. New Delhi Declaration for monitoring GHG emissions 
It aims to collect and co-ordinate data from Earth Observing satellites of various countries. More than 60 nations have signed up to work together to establish an international, independent system for estimating and curbing global greenhouse gas emissions based on accepted data.

13. Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 
It was adopted in the 3rd UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction at Sendai, Japan. The Sendai Framework is the successor instrument to the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) 2005-2015. It consists of seven global targets and four priorities for action. The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR) served as the coordinating body.

14. Global Tiger Forum
The Global Tiger Forum is an inter-governmental international organization for the conservation of tigers in the wild formed in 1994. The GTF is committed to work through mandate ratified by the Tiger Range Countries (TRCs) to ensure the implementation of the Global Tiger Recovery Programme (GTRP). It is the only inter-governmental and international body functioning exclusively for the conservation of tigers in the wild. The number of wild tigers has gone up to 3,890, from the earlier 2010 estimate of 3200, according to the World Wildlife Fund and the Global Tiger Forum.

15. World Environment Day, 2016
The World Environment Day is commemorated as part of the Stockholm Conference which happened on June 5, 1972. It is run by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP). The Theme for 2016 is " to prohibit illegal trade of threatened " (GO WILD FOR LIFE). Angola is the host country of this year.

16. TRAFFIC
It is a non-governmental organization monitoring globally on trade in wild animals and plants in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. It was established in 1976 jointly by World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)

17. South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)
Regional network is comprised of eight countries in South Asia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It aims at working as a strong regional intergovernmental body for combating wildlife crime by attempting common goals and approaches for combating illegal trade in the region.

18. Espoo Convention
It is the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) signed it in Espoo, Finland, in 1991 and it entered into force in 1997. The Convention sets out the obligations of Parties—that is States that have agreed to be bound by the Convention—to carry out an environmental impact assessment of certain activities at an early stage of planning.

Next:International Organisations

Current Affairs for CSE - Part VI

Let us discuss about the current events on Science & Technology in this section. I have clubbed together the information under five sections:

I) Space Research and Technology

II) Military Technology

III) Material science and Energy Technology

IV) Biotechnology and Life sciences

V) Robotics, Computer, IT and Consumer electronics

I. Space Research and Technology

1. Gravitational waves

Gravitational waves are ripples in the fabric of space-time created out of giant explosions in the Universe. They propagate as waves, travelling outward from the source. The existence of such waves was predicted in 1916 by Albert Einstein on the basis of his theory of general relativity. There have been great advancements in research regarding the gravitational waves as follows

Laser Interferometer Gravitational Observatory (LIGO) – An L shaped interferometer in Lousiana, United States that detected the presence of gravitational waves. The LIGO captured the final moments of the merging of two giant black-holes to a single spinning black hole, about 1.3 billion years ago.
IndIGO – The Indian Initiative in Gravitational-wave Observation(IndIGO) is a consortium of Indian gravitational wave physicists who are in the process of setting up a similar observatory, known as LIGO-India in the country.
Laser Interferometer Space Antenna (LISA) project – It is a proposed European Space Agency Mission consisting of three spacecrafts massively apart forming the corners a giant equilateral triangle. This is for the accurate detection of gravitational waves.

2. Detection of elementary particles
Large Hadron Collider – It is a particle accelerator in the form a huge circular underground tunnel in the France-Swiss border and is maintained by the European Organisation for Nuclear Research (CERN), Geneva. Application of a high potential leads to acceleration of particles like protons that collide to create a condition similar to that of the Big Bang. It had successfully detected the presence of Higgs Boson in 2012. Currently the LHC has gone for an upgradation that enables it to accelerate protons to very high energy levels of 13 Tera electron volts (TeV). Recently it was able to find a new family of particles known as tetra-quarks. Quarks are the elementary particles that constitutes protons and other hadrons, but they were assumed to exist in group of two or three.
Indian Neutrino Observatory – This is an underground observatory coming up in 1,300 meter deep cave under the Bodi West Hills in the Theni region of Tamil Nadu in India. It will used to study the atmospheric neutrinos, a major component of cosmic radiations coming from outer space. It includes a massive Iron Calorimeter to detect the chargeless neutrinos.

3. Space Observatories across the globe

Thirty Meter Telescope – It is an Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) with an aperture of 30 metres diameter and thus the name. The aim of the project is to study about the dark matter and dark energy in the Universe. The project has government-level support from nations like U.S, China, Japan, Canada and India. India supports the project in kind providing the mirror fabrication like edge sensors and actuators. The initial location of the TMT was decided as the Mt. Mauna Kea in the Hawaiian Islands. But, due to some issues the scientists are mulling of shifting the location to Hanle in Ladakh region of India.
James Webb Space Telescope – Space observatory to be launched by NASA in 2018. It is also known as Next Generation Space Telescope (NGST)
ARIES Telescope - Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences. It is a joint collaboration between India, Belgium and Russia. With the mirror having a diameter of 3.6m, it is the largest optical telescope in Asia. It is situated in Nainital in Uttarakhand. It will be used in the study and exploration of planets, stars and astronomical debris.

Multiple Application Solar Telescope (MAST) - It will be used for the detailed study of the Solar activity including its magnetic field. It has recently been operationalised at the Udaipur Solar Observatory (USO)

GRAVITY - The most powerful Very Large Telescope Interferometer (VLTI) in the world.

It is a four beam combiner, near-infrared astrometric and imaging equipment. It is being developed by consortium of European nations and is located in Chile.
Five Hundred metres Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) - It is large radio telescope being developed by China in the Karst depression of Guizhou province. It is nicknamed Tianyan.

4. Space expeditions

Juno mission – It is NASA's mission to study about Jupiter including its composition, gravity field and magnetic field. It is the second mission to Jupiter after Galileo that was launched in 1989. Juno is powered by three massive solar arms and it is the most distant solar-powered space-craft currently breaking the record of Rosetta. The missions to outer Solar system (outside the asteroid belt) generally use nuclear fuel.
Space X rocket - NASA has outsourced the launching capabilities to the private firm Space-X Technologies. It uses the Falcon 9 rocket for launch and the Dragon capsule that docks with the International Space Station (ISS). Recently a reusable booster was employed in the Falcon rocket and it successfully touched down on land and sea in separate tests. This would bring down the cost for launch.
The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) - It is an experimental expandable space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a temporary module on the International Space Station (ISS). Expandable habitats greatly decrease the amount of transport volume for future space missions. They can also be deployed on Earth during extreme conditions like a disaster.
Mars InSight mission – It is a NASA project to study how rocky planets like Earth and Mars evolved. The mission scheduled for launch in 2018 involves placing a stationary lander equipped with a seismometer and heat transfer probe on the surface of Mars.
New Horizon – It is a NASA mission to study about Pluto and other dwarf planets in the outer region of the solar system post Neptune (known as the Kuiper belt). Pluto and its satellite Charon which happens to be about half its size form a fascinating pair. The space-craft revealed Pluto’s twilight zone recently.
Dawn spacecraft - A NASA spacecraft launched in 2007 to study about the two dwarf planets in the asteroid belt - Vesta and Ceres. It orbited Vesta in 2011 and entered Ceres orbit in 2015. Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt. The study would help in getting information on the evolution of planets.
Kepler Planet orbiting two stars - NASA's Kepler Mission has discovered a circumbinary planet i.e. one which orbits two stars. The Kepler spacecraft was launched by NASA in 2009 to study about Earth-like planets (also known as exo-planets) in probable life sustaining Habitable Zones of other stars.

5. Indian Space Technology
Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System - India's own navigational system consisting of seven satellites - IRNSS 1A to 1G. Of these, four satellites are geo-synchronous while the other three are geo-stationary. The system will be used for both civilian and military purposes and will have navigational capacity in South Asia.
Re-usable Launch Vehicle – Recently a technology demonstrator (known as RLV-TD) vehicle was successfully tested. The major technologies tested were atmospheric re-entry, hypersonic acceleration and scramjet propulsion. The scramjet propulsion otherwise known as air-breathing technology uses atmospheric oxygen for combustion of fuel during initial stages. This helps is to accelerate to hypersonic speeds (more than 5 Machs)  
Astrosat – India's multi-wavelenght space telescope that can work in optical, UV and X ray bands. It will study stars, galaxies, black-holes etc
Adithya – The objective of this mission was to study the solar corona. Now the project has been renamed as Adithya L1 referring to the Lagrangian orbit it would use for its expedition. Adithya L1 would be a pair of satellites placed between the Earth and the Sun. They have a bigger objective of studying the solar weather and its impacts on the Earth.
NASA ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) - It is a project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite. The satellite will be the first radar imaging satellite to use dual frequency (L & S band) and it is planned to be used for remote sensing to observe and understand natural processes of the Earth.
Geo-Imaging Satellite (GISAT) – Geostationary satellite carrying a GEO Imager with multispectral (visible, near infra-red and thermal) and multi-resolution (50m to 1.5km) imaging instruments. Generally, imaging satellites have a polar Low Earth Orbit. But the GISAT has a geo-stationary orbit and is at an altitude of 36,000 km from Earth.
Cartosat 2C – It is an Earth observation satellite in a sun-synchronous orbit that can take high resolution images of up to 60cm resolution. It carries a panchromatic camera capable of taking black and white pictures.

II. Military Technology

Ballistic missiles
They are passively guided i.e. the control is only during launch and then the flight of the missile is according to the laws of motion. The important ballistic missiles in news are:
Prithvi - It is a surface-to-surface category Short Range Ballistic Missile. Maximum range is 700 km (Prithvi III)
Agni - It is a surface-to-surface category ballistic missile. Agni I and II are Medium Range Ballistic Missiles (MRBM) with maximum range of 3000 km. Agni III and IV are Intermediate Range Ballistic Missiles (IRBM) with a maximum range of 5000 km. Agni V and VI are called as Inter Continental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) with range more than 5500km. 

      Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles (SLBM) – This is otherwise known as the K family of missiles. It is also known as the Black Project since the DRDO is covertly working on it. The K15 (also known as Sagarika) is the SLBM variant of the Shaurya and has a range between 700km to 1500 km. The K4 is the SLBM variant of Agni V and has a range of more than 3500km.

Heat Seeking Missiles
Such missiles have IR seekers that help them to "home in" on targets. Important heat seeking missiles are:

Astra – It is a Beyond Visual Range Air-to-Air Missile (BVRAAM) that flies in supersonic, tail chase mode possessing Single Shot Kill Probability (SSKP). It has an active radar homing system to focus up on the targets. It has been tested on all the major fighter jets including the Sukhoi.

Akash – It is a medium range surface-to-air missile. The missile system has array radars to track the targets and can target air-crafts up to 30 km away, at altitudes up to 18000 m.

Nag – It is a fire-and-forget anti-tank missile. It consists imaging infra-red (IIR) passive seeker that ensures high hit accuracy. HELINA is the helicopter launched version of Nag.

Barak-8 - It is an India-Israel Surface to Air Missile and is also known as LR-SAM. It is designed to defend against any type of airborne threat including aircraft, helicopters and UAVs out to a maximum range of 70 km.

Cruise missiles
They are actively guided missiles and control is applied throughout their flight. The two cruise missiles with India are

Brahmos – These are supersonic in nature and have a range of 295 km.

Nirbhay – These are sub-sonic in nature. They fly very close to surface (500m to 4km) and hence escape detection. They have a range of around 1000 km.

Anti-Radiation Missile - Air-to-Surface missile with a range of 100 to 125 km. It is a tactical missile and will be deployed on the Tejas (Light Combat Aircraft) and the Sukhoi fighter aircrafts. It will target RADARs and communication facilities.

Missile Defence Systems - India's military arsenal consists of missile defence systems to intercept any incoming missiles. Following are important missile defence systems

Prithvi Air Defence (PAD) – It is used for high altitude interception (up to 80 km) and is used to intercept exo-atmospheric ballistic missiles. It is otherwise known as Pradyumna

Advanced Air Defence (AAD) – It is used for low altitude interception (up to 40 km). It is otherwise known as “Ashwin”. It can intercept cruise missiles, UAVs and aircraft.

War planes
There have been news about war-planes. The important among them are:
Sukhoi Su-30MKI - Primary air superiority fighter of the Indian Air Force. It is Russian made fourth generation fighter
Dassault Rafale – The Medium Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MMRCA) that India plans to purchase from France. It is a fourth generation fighter aircraft.
PAKFA (Prospective Airborne Complex of Frontline Aviation) - The Fifth Generation Fighter Aircraft (FGFA) being jointly developed by India and Russia. It combines supersonic cruise, stealth and advanced avionics. It will be armed with Astra - BVRAAM.
Tejas – The Light Combat Aircraft indigenously developed in India. The Kaveri engine of this plane was found ineffective and has been replaced by that of GE Aviation of the US. Recently the Government has decided to induct the upgraded version i.e. Tejas-Mark-1A to the Air Force rather than acquiring more Rafales. Tejas is a fourth generation fighter aircraft.
Lockheed Martin- F16 - It is a multi-role fourth generation fighter produced by US based Lockheed Martin. The F16 is eyeing a contract with India for shifting its manufacturing base.
C-17 Globemaster III – They are transport aircrafts acquired from US. They would replace the ailing Russian made Il-76s. Recently they were deployed evacuation missions in South Sudan and Yemen.
C-130J Hercules – They are transport aircrafts used for combined Army-Air Force operations. They are acquired from US.

Advanced RADARs to detect incoming objects

PHAROS – Multi-tracking RADAR being developed by BEL in collaboration with Thales, France

AWACS - Advanced Early Warning And Control System. They are advanced radars mounted on an aircraft to give 360 degree coverage to detect incoming aircraft and missiles at long ranges.

III. Material sciences and Energy Technology

Graphene – It is an allotrope of Carbon and exists in the form of a two-dimensional array of Carbon atoms. Graphene is strong, transparent and conductor of heat and electricity. The Carbon Nano Tubes are made from it. Ultra-thin graphene sensors have been designed to detect air-pollution at home by adsorption of CO2 onto graphene.

Silica aerogel – world’s lightest material ever developed by man. Also called “frozen smoke” or “blue air”. Heat resistant since 95% of it is air. They would be very useful in manufacturing heat insulators in applications like space crafts.

Q carbon – Allotrope of carbon. It is reported to be ferromagnetic and electrically conductive and is able to glow when exposed to low levels of energy. It is assumed to be harder than Diamond and some scientists claim it as an easy way to manufacture diamonds.

Shale gas and Coal Bed Methane - The major component of all these substances is methane. Hence they are more efficient and less dense compared to LPG and petroleum. Shale gas is found trapped within impermeable shale rocks that are sedimentary in nature. Methane gas absorbed into solid matrix of coal is called Coal Bed Methane. It is called 'sweet gas' because of its lack of hydrogen sulfide

Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor - This test reactor at Kalpakkam generates fuel as a by-product. Mixed Oxide (MOX) obtained from Plutonium and natural Uranium is given as fuel. It forms the second stage of the three-stage nuclear programme started by Homi J Bhabha after the thermal reactors in the first stage. The Thorium-Uranium cycle would form the third stage, but this has not been achieved anywhere in the world.

International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) - being developed at Cadarache in France. It is an international nuclear fusion project run by seven member entities including India. A Tokamak design of the reactor is employed in the project.

IV. Biotechnology and Life-sciences

Important vaccines
Inactivated Polio Vaccine (IPV) - It is also called as injectable polio vaccine. Instead of using a live attenuated virus, the IPV contains a dead strain of the Polio virus which is injected into the body.
Rotavac - Vaccine indigenously developed in India jointly by the Government and Bharat Biotech in PPP mode. It is administered against Rotavirus that causes diarrhoea in children.
Typbar TCV - It is an indigenously developed vaccine against Typhoid. 
Dengvaxia – It is a new vaccine developed against Dengue. WHO recommends its introduction in countries in South America and Asia.

Zika virus – Zika virus is spread by Aedes mosquitoes and causes macrocephaly i.e. abnormally large head in newborns. The Maharashtra Hybrid Seeds Corporation (Mahyco) has created GM mosquitoes to fight Zika virus. The male mosquitoes render the disease causing female mosquitoes unable to reproduce, thus reducing their population.

Bacterial resistance in India – In India enzymes like the New Delhi Metallo-beta-lactamase-1 (NDM-1) cause bacteria resistant to antibiotics. The gene for NDM-1 is one member of a large gene family that encodes beta-lactamase enzymes called carbapenemases. Bacteria that produce carbapenemases are often referred to as "superbugs" because infections caused by them are difficult to treat. Bacterial resistance is also developed by not following the proper drug course, over the counter sale of drugs or the sub-standard hospital management. 

Fixed Drug Combinations – Two or more drugs combined in a fixed ratio of doses and available in a single dosage form. The government banned FDC drugs, extending to about 6,000 brands, on 10 March, citing health risks, based on a report by a six-member committee headed by Chandrakant Kokate.

Genetic Engineering
Gene editing technology – In this technique, DNA is inserted, deleted or replaced in the genome of the organism using engineered nucleases otherwise known as “biological scissors”. The most popular nuclease being used now is the CRISPR-Cas system. Recently the UK Government has allowed for the gene editing of embryos for research purpose while the US Government has given in principle approval to commercially produce gene edited mushrooms.
HGP Write – After the success of the Human Genome Project that could decode a complete human DNA, the scientists are in the process of creating a complete genome from scratch. The human genome consists of three billion DNA nucleotides. The researchers expect that the ability to synthesize large portions of the human genome would result in many scientific and medical advancements.
Bacterium with lowest number of genes - Some US scientists have created a bacterium from Mycoplasma genus containing just 473 genes. The knowledge gained from this creation may be foundational to understand how organisms can be created from scratch and such a study is otherwise called synthetic biology. 
Bio-printing in living tissues - It is for the repair and re-generation of body tissues. The process involves embedding vascular tissues within thick human tissues.

V. Consumer electronics, Computer, IT and robotics

Autonomous driving
Innovators across the world has been testing upon driverless riding of vehicles. Tesla is the front runner with its Autopilot cars. Recently Mercedes-Benz unveiled a self-driving 'Future Bus'. The US Transportation Department has defined five levels of autonomous driving capability. Current technologies like automatic parallel parking comes in the first level while the future Google pod-cars that require no human intervention come in Level 5.

Automated Transmission
Car-makers in India are largely shifting from manual transmission to automated transmission otherwise known as clutch-less driving. The most important technologies are Auto Gear Shift (AGS) and the Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT). Both employs a gear-box that works based on electronic sensors, processors and actuators. The CVT consists of a belt system that can seamlessly change the gear through the continuous range of correct gear ratios.  

Micro Air Vehicles 
These are miniature Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV). Many of the MAVs are bio-inspired i.e. based on the anatomy of biological organisms. Robobees that are small flying robots or bat-inspired MAVs are some examples.

Intelligent Patient Vehicle (IPV)
It is a vehicle for loco-disabled being developed by scientists at CSIR. The commands on a touch pad are converted into mechanical actions. The scientists are in the process of upgrading it where the touch commands would be replaced by head gestures.

Brain-Machine-Interface
It enables a direct communication pathway between the brain and an external device. Electro Encephalography (EEG) signals from brain are captured and converted to meaningful commands by a computer. They are used to make neuro-prosthetic applications - using artificial devices to replace the function of impaired nervous systems and brain related problems, or of sensory organs. 

THOR
3D printed plane unveiled by Airbus. It is completely 3D printed, except the electrical elements, which are built from a substance called polyamide. 3D printing otherwise known as additive manufacturing is being employed in many spheres these days.

New Chinese supercomputer
Subway TaihuLight with 93 quadrillion calculations per second is currently the fastest computer in the world. It is developed by the National Research Centre of Parallel Computer Engineering and Technology (NRCPC) and is built entirely using processors designed and made in China. The super-computer has displaced Tianhe-2, an Intel-based Chinese supercomputer.

Over The Top (OTT) technologies
The application that works on top of the internet are called as OTT technologies. The common application like WhatsApp or Facebook come under this category. The Telecom/Internet Service Providers have been losing revenue on account of such OTT applications and hence they have been demanding differential pricing for such applications.

Net Neutrality
Net neutrality implies that the internet gateways or service providers would treat the content passing through them equally and do not discriminate among them. Violation of net-neutrality is anti-competitive and leads to monopolistic tendencies. 

Ensuring access to internet
Companies across the globe are trying to ensure internet accessibility to the population currently disconnected especially in the continents of Asia and Africa.
Project Loon - Google has unveiled its plan to use helium balloons to connect people to the net. The research and development project being developed by Google uses high-altitude balloons placed in the stratosphere at an altitude of about 32 km (20 mi) to create an aerial wireless network with up to 3G-like speeds. 
Free Basics - Facebook has joined hands with Reliance Communications to launch this global initiative in India.  The tie-up gives subscribers who have Internet-enabled handsets free access to 38 Websites that can be accesses by an Android app.

Internet of Things
It is a system of increased machine-to-machine communication built on cloud computing and networks of data-gathering sensors. The interconnection of these embedded devices (including smart objects), is expected to usher in automation in nearly all fields, while also enabling advanced applications like a Smart Grid.

Light Fidelity (Li-Fi)
In this emerging transmission technology, white light (instead of the Radio-waves/Micro-waves) is used to carry information. Here the router will be in the form of a bulb while the individual systems would consist of dongles than can convert light waves into meaningful information.The data transfer is faster since the frequency of light is higher compared to radio-waves.

4K displays
These are advanced display systems otherwise known as Ultra High Definition that exhibit high resolution. While High Definition displays consist of around 2.07 mega pixels, the UHD consists of about 8.29 mega pixels i.e. four times of HD. There is an even advanced 8K UHD that has about 33 mega pixel resolution.

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