Environment has become a subject of international debate since the 1970s. A number of organisations and events have come up raising the importance of environment related issues. This has emerged as an important area in the CSE. Let us now study about the international bodies and events related to environment.
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971
This happened in Ramsar, Iran and is hence also known as Ramsar Convention. It identified important wetlands across the globe which were otherwise called as Ramsar Sites. The Convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 26 Ramsar Sites.
UN Conference on the Human Environment, 1972
It is popularly known as the Stockholm Conference.It was the first step in putting environmental concerns in global agenda. The conference resulted in the famous 'Stockholm Declaration' containing twenty six principles towards preservation and enhancement of human environment. It also lead to the setting up of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to serve as the coordinating agency in environment related efforts across the globe.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972
The Convention that is under UNESCO, draws up a list of 'heritage sites' which are cultural, natural or mixed areas of 'outstanding universal value' and therefore need to be protected for all humanity. It publishes the World Heritage List and a List of World Heritage in Danger (also known as Endangered Sites). It also maintains a World Heritage Fund for the conservation of such sites. The convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 35 Heritage sites - 27 cultural, 7 natural and one mixed site. Recently Nalanda University and Capitol Complex in Chandigarh were added as Cultural Heritage Sites while Khangchendzonga Peak in Sikkim was declared as a mixed site.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1973
The aim of the convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival. The Parties to the Convention need to authorise all import, export and re-export of species covered under the Convention through a licensing system. Three are three Appendices according to the degree of protection - Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction, Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened but whose trade need to be controlled. Appendix III contains species that are protected at least in one country that has asked other CITES Parties to cooperate. The Convention entered to force in 1975.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), 1979
This is otherwise known as Bonn Convention and it entered into force in 1983. It is a global effort aiming at conserving terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It consists of two Appendices - Appendix I deals with endangered migratory species like Siberian Crane and Hawksbill Turtle. Appendix II deals with not so endangered species but require international cooperative action for their protection.
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources,1980
It happened as a part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The goal is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. In 1989, CCAMLR set up the Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) to further monitor the effects of fishing and harvesting of species in the area.
Law of the Sea Convention, 1982
It seeks to protect and preserve marine environment. The countries party to the convention should not over-exploit the resources in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer, 1985
The Parties under this convention agreed to undertake appropriate measures to prevent modification of ozone layer. It entered into force in 1988.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
It set legally binding goals for reducing Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). It aims to reduce and eventually eliminate man-made ODSs like Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) and Hydro-Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (HCFC). It entered into force in 1989.
UN World Commission on Environment and Development (UNWCED), 1987
It is also known as the Brundtland Commission. It unveiled the concept of Sustainable Development as "development that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the capabilities of the future generations to meet their needs". The report titled "Our Common Future" was published in 1987. It introduced concepts like 'Polluter Pays Principle', 'Inter-generational Equity', 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities' etc.
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, 1989
The Convention addresses the risk to human health and environment caused by hazardous and other wastes and their trans-boundary movement. It entered into force in 1992. The related Liability Protocol which put binding obligations on the members was adopted in 1999.
UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1991
This is popularly called as Earth Summit and this happened in Rio-De-Janeiro, Brazil. The Conference had three main objectives - climate change, sustainable development and bio-diversity conservation. The UNFCCC, CBD and Agenda 21 have emerged from the Earth Summit:
1. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The objective of the convention is combating the climate change. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an expert-level body that presents reports to the UNFCCC. The IPCC was established in 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP. The important summits (otherwise known as Conference of Parties or CoP) under UNFCCC are:
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 - It put legally binding obligations on developed nations (Annex nations) to reduce carbon emissions by 5.2% during the period 2008-2012, the base year being 1990. The protocol entered into force in 2005.
Bali Action Plan, 2007 - On the adaptation and mitigation actions for combating climate change. It also lead to the creation of Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +). It aims to incentivise the developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks. The most important projects related to the REDD+ approach are the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank and the UN-REDD Programme
Copenhagen Accord, 2009 - It created the Global Climate Fund (GCF), as a mechanism to transfer money from developed to developing world for adaptation and mitigation efforts, amounting to a total of $100 billion to be raised by 2020.
Durban Platform, 2011 - To keep the Kyoto protocol alive till 2020 and to negotiate a successor agreement.
Paris summit, 2015 - The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) introduced formally as a new commitment mechanism among the member nations. It envisages a bottom-up approach where the individual nations are free to declare their commitments rather than abide by the orders from above. The Summit has decided to restrict global warming to below 1.5 degree centigrade from the pre-industrial levels.
2. Agenda 21
This is a document containing the non-binding voluntary UN Action Plan regarding sustainable development which can be applied at local, national and global levels. A UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was formed as part of this.
3. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The convention had three objectives - i) Conservation of biological diversity, ii) Sustainable use of its components and iii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
The Nagoya Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol are attachments to it.
Nagoya Protocol, 2010
It is specifically on the Access and Benefit sharing aspect of the CBD. It aims to combat bio-piracy by ensuring legal certainty and transparency. There is a special stress to protect and preserve Traditional Knowledge(TK) regarding genetic resources. It entered into force in 2014. In a related event, five targets related to biodiversity to be achieved in the ten year period from 2011 to 2020 were announced. These were called as Aichi Targets.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000
The protocol seeks to protect local biodiversity from the potential risk posed by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) resulting from Biotechnology. It allows the countries to ban import of a GMOs if there are not enough scientific evidence to prove otherwise. It is in accordance with the precautionary approach, contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration during the Earth Summit. The protocol entered into force in 2003.
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), 1994
The convention 'endorses' a bottom-up approach to international environmental co-operation. The Parties to the Convention are to make prevention of desertification a priority in national policies.
It entered into force in 1996.
Rotterdam Convention, 1998
It is on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. It entered into force in 2004
UN Millennium Declaration
It happened in the UN head-quarters at New York in 2000. The main component of the Declaration was the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). These were a set of eight broad goals regarding socio-economic and environmental issues across the globe that are to be achieved within the year 2015. (http://csaide.blogspot.in/2015/08/millenium-development-goals.html)
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001
It entered into force in 2004 and aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP). POPs are chemical substances that persist in the environment and bio-accumulate through the food-web. Initially twelve pesticides and chemicals were identified to be worst offenders and they were called the 'Dirty Dozen'. Currently there are 24 POPs which have been divided into three categories - A (Elimination), B (Restriction) and C (Unintentional production).
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002
It is also known as Earth Summit 2002 or "Rio +10". It discussed about the key means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from business and non-governmental organizations.
UN Conference on Sustainable development, 2012
It is also known as Earth Summit 2012 or "Rio+20". A document titled "The Future We Want" was published. It unveiled the language of Sustainable Development Goals that have replaced the Millennium Development Goals from year 2016. The Conference exhorted for improved well-being and social equity while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcity.
Conservation International - It is an non-profit environmental organization whose goal is to protect nature as a source of food, fresh water, livelihoods and a stable climate. The CI was behind the concept of Biodiversity Hotspots. They identified 34 hotspots across the globe and and took initiative to protect those.
Birdlife International - It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity. It has identified regions known as Endemic Bird Areas where the distributions of restricted-range species of birds (up to 50,000 sq. km.) overlap.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - It is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of humanity's footprint on the environment. It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund. It is currently the largest conservation organisation. Much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: oceans and coasts, forests, and freshwater ecosystems. The WWF has initiated the 'Earth Hour' event to highlight environmental issues and energy security.
Internation Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) - It was formed in 1948 and is a global partnership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organisations. The IUCN has been phenomenal in bringing out the Red Data List that classifies plants and animals into categories based on the severity of threat they face. It has also classified world's Protected Areas into six categories.
Global Environment Facility - It is an independently operating financial organization and serves as financial mechanism for Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Stockholm Convention on Persistant Organic Pollutants.
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance, 1971
This happened in Ramsar, Iran and is hence also known as Ramsar Convention. It identified important wetlands across the globe which were otherwise called as Ramsar Sites. The Convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 26 Ramsar Sites.
UN Conference on the Human Environment, 1972
It is popularly known as the Stockholm Conference.It was the first step in putting environmental concerns in global agenda. The conference resulted in the famous 'Stockholm Declaration' containing twenty six principles towards preservation and enhancement of human environment. It also lead to the setting up of the UN Environment Programme (UNEP) to serve as the coordinating agency in environment related efforts across the globe.
Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, 1972
The Convention that is under UNESCO, draws up a list of 'heritage sites' which are cultural, natural or mixed areas of 'outstanding universal value' and therefore need to be protected for all humanity. It publishes the World Heritage List and a List of World Heritage in Danger (also known as Endangered Sites). It also maintains a World Heritage Fund for the conservation of such sites. The convention entered into force in 1975. Currently India consists of 35 Heritage sites - 27 cultural, 7 natural and one mixed site. Recently Nalanda University and Capitol Complex in Chandigarh were added as Cultural Heritage Sites while Khangchendzonga Peak in Sikkim was declared as a mixed site.
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), 1973
The aim of the convention is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants do not threaten their survival. The Parties to the Convention need to authorise all import, export and re-export of species covered under the Convention through a licensing system. Three are three Appendices according to the degree of protection - Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction, Appendix II includes species not necessarily threatened but whose trade need to be controlled. Appendix III contains species that are protected at least in one country that has asked other CITES Parties to cooperate. The Convention entered to force in 1975.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species (CMS), 1979
This is otherwise known as Bonn Convention and it entered into force in 1983. It is a global effort aiming at conserving terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It consists of two Appendices - Appendix I deals with endangered migratory species like Siberian Crane and Hawksbill Turtle. Appendix II deals with not so endangered species but require international cooperative action for their protection.
Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources,1980
It happened as a part of the Antarctic Treaty System. The goal is to preserve marine life and environmental integrity in and near Antarctica. In 1989, CCAMLR set up the Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) to further monitor the effects of fishing and harvesting of species in the area.
Law of the Sea Convention, 1982
It seeks to protect and preserve marine environment. The countries party to the convention should not over-exploit the resources in their Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)
Vienna Convention for the Protection of Ozone Layer, 1985
The Parties under this convention agreed to undertake appropriate measures to prevent modification of ozone layer. It entered into force in 1988.
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987
It set legally binding goals for reducing Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS). It aims to reduce and eventually eliminate man-made ODSs like Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (CFC) and Hydro-Chloro-Fluoro-Carbons (HCFC). It entered into force in 1989.
UN World Commission on Environment and Development (UNWCED), 1987
It is also known as the Brundtland Commission. It unveiled the concept of Sustainable Development as "development that meets the needs of the current generation without compromising the capabilities of the future generations to meet their needs". The report titled "Our Common Future" was published in 1987. It introduced concepts like 'Polluter Pays Principle', 'Inter-generational Equity', 'Common But Differentiated Responsibilities' etc.
Basel Convention on the Control of Trans-boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes, 1989
The Convention addresses the risk to human health and environment caused by hazardous and other wastes and their trans-boundary movement. It entered into force in 1992. The related Liability Protocol which put binding obligations on the members was adopted in 1999.
UN Conference on Environment and Development, 1991
This is popularly called as Earth Summit and this happened in Rio-De-Janeiro, Brazil. The Conference had three main objectives - climate change, sustainable development and bio-diversity conservation. The UNFCCC, CBD and Agenda 21 have emerged from the Earth Summit:
1. UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
The objective of the convention is combating the climate change. The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an expert-level body that presents reports to the UNFCCC. The IPCC was established in 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP. The important summits (otherwise known as Conference of Parties or CoP) under UNFCCC are:
Kyoto Protocol, 1997 - It put legally binding obligations on developed nations (Annex nations) to reduce carbon emissions by 5.2% during the period 2008-2012, the base year being 1990. The protocol entered into force in 2005.
Bali Action Plan, 2007 - On the adaptation and mitigation actions for combating climate change. It also lead to the creation of Reduction of Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD +). It aims to incentivise the developing countries to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, conserve forest carbon stocks, sustainably manage forests and enhance forest carbon stocks. The most important projects related to the REDD+ approach are the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF) of the World Bank and the UN-REDD Programme
Copenhagen Accord, 2009 - It created the Global Climate Fund (GCF), as a mechanism to transfer money from developed to developing world for adaptation and mitigation efforts, amounting to a total of $100 billion to be raised by 2020.
Durban Platform, 2011 - To keep the Kyoto protocol alive till 2020 and to negotiate a successor agreement.
Paris summit, 2015 - The Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) introduced formally as a new commitment mechanism among the member nations. It envisages a bottom-up approach where the individual nations are free to declare their commitments rather than abide by the orders from above. The Summit has decided to restrict global warming to below 1.5 degree centigrade from the pre-industrial levels.
2. Agenda 21
This is a document containing the non-binding voluntary UN Action Plan regarding sustainable development which can be applied at local, national and global levels. A UN Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD) was formed as part of this.
3. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The convention had three objectives - i) Conservation of biological diversity, ii) Sustainable use of its components and iii) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
The Nagoya Protocol and the Cartagena Protocol are attachments to it.
Nagoya Protocol, 2010
It is specifically on the Access and Benefit sharing aspect of the CBD. It aims to combat bio-piracy by ensuring legal certainty and transparency. There is a special stress to protect and preserve Traditional Knowledge(TK) regarding genetic resources. It entered into force in 2014. In a related event, five targets related to biodiversity to be achieved in the ten year period from 2011 to 2020 were announced. These were called as Aichi Targets.
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety, 2000
The protocol seeks to protect local biodiversity from the potential risk posed by Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO) resulting from Biotechnology. It allows the countries to ban import of a GMOs if there are not enough scientific evidence to prove otherwise. It is in accordance with the precautionary approach, contained in Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration during the Earth Summit. The protocol entered into force in 2003.
UN Convention to Combat Desertification (CCD), 1994
The convention 'endorses' a bottom-up approach to international environmental co-operation. The Parties to the Convention are to make prevention of desertification a priority in national policies.
It entered into force in 1996.
Rotterdam Convention, 1998
It is on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for certain hazardous chemicals and pesticides in international trade. The convention promotes open exchange of information and calls on exporters of hazardous chemicals to use proper labeling, include directions on safe handling, and inform purchasers of any known restrictions or bans. It entered into force in 2004
UN Millennium Declaration
It happened in the UN head-quarters at New York in 2000. The main component of the Declaration was the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). These were a set of eight broad goals regarding socio-economic and environmental issues across the globe that are to be achieved within the year 2015. (http://csaide.blogspot.in/2015/08/millenium-development-goals.html)
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, 2001
It entered into force in 2004 and aims to eliminate or restrict the production and use of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POP). POPs are chemical substances that persist in the environment and bio-accumulate through the food-web. Initially twelve pesticides and chemicals were identified to be worst offenders and they were called the 'Dirty Dozen'. Currently there are 24 POPs which have been divided into three categories - A (Elimination), B (Restriction) and C (Unintentional production).
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), 2002
It is also known as Earth Summit 2002 or "Rio +10". It discussed about the key means to achieve the Millennium Development Goals. WSSD gathered a number of leaders from business and non-governmental organizations.
UN Conference on Sustainable development, 2012
It is also known as Earth Summit 2012 or "Rio+20". A document titled "The Future We Want" was published. It unveiled the language of Sustainable Development Goals that have replaced the Millennium Development Goals from year 2016. The Conference exhorted for improved well-being and social equity while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcity.
Other important organisations
Conservation International - It is an non-profit environmental organization whose goal is to protect nature as a source of food, fresh water, livelihoods and a stable climate. The CI was behind the concept of Biodiversity Hotspots. They identified 34 hotspots across the globe and and took initiative to protect those.
Birdlife International - It is a global partnership of conservation organisations that strives to conserve birds, their habitats and global biodiversity. It has identified regions known as Endemic Bird Areas where the distributions of restricted-range species of birds (up to 50,000 sq. km.) overlap.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) - It is an international non-governmental organization founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of humanity's footprint on the environment. It was formerly named the World Wildlife Fund. It is currently the largest conservation organisation. Much of its work focuses on the conservation of three biomes that contain most of the world's biodiversity: oceans and coasts, forests, and freshwater ecosystems. The WWF has initiated the 'Earth Hour' event to highlight environmental issues and energy security.
Internation Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) - It was formed in 1948 and is a global partnership of over 1200 governmental and non-governmental organisations. The IUCN has been phenomenal in bringing out the Red Data List that classifies plants and animals into categories based on the severity of threat they face. It has also classified world's Protected Areas into six categories.
Global Environment Facility - It is an independently operating financial organization and serves as financial mechanism for Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), Stockholm Convention on Persistant Organic Pollutants.
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